Environment Impact Assessment Process in India and the Drawbacks Essay Example

Environment Impact Assessment Process in India and the Drawbacks Essay ENVIRONMENT IMPACT ASSESSMENT PROCESS IN INDIA AND THE DRAWBACKS Prepared by – Environment Conservation Team (Aruna Murthy, Himansu Sekhar Patra) September 2005 Vasundhara, 15, Sahid Nagar Bhubaneshwar – 751 007 1 ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT ASSESSMENT PROCESS IN INDIA AND THE DRAW BACKS INTRODUCTION EIA is an exercise to be carried out before any project or major activity is undertaken to ensure that it will not in any way harm the environment on a short term or long term basis. Any developmental endeavor requires not only the analysis of the need of such a project, the monetary costs and benefits involved but most important, it requires a consideration and detailed assessment of the effect of a proposed development on the environment. The environment impact process was introduced with the purpose of identifying /evaluating the potential beneficial and adverse impacts of development projects on the environment, taking in to account environmental, social, cultural and aesthetic considerations. All of these considerations are critical to determine the viability of a project and to decide if a project should be granted environmental clearance. An EIA concentrate on problems, conflicts and natural resource constraints which might affect the viability of a project. It also predicts how the project could harm to people, their homeland, their livelihoods, and the other nearby developmental activities. After predicting potential impacts, the EIA identifies measures to minimize the impacts and suggests ways to improve the project viability. We will write a custom essay sample on Environment Impact Assessment Process in India and the Drawbacks specifically for you for only $16.38 $13.9/page Order now We will write a custom essay sample on Environment Impact Assessment Process in India and the Drawbacks specifically for you FOR ONLY $16.38 $13.9/page Hire Writer We will write a custom essay sample on Environment Impact Assessment Process in India and the Drawbacks specifically for you FOR ONLY $16.38 $13.9/page Hire Writer The aim of an EIA is to ensure that potential impacts are identified and addressed at an early stage in the projects planning and design. To achieve this aim, the assessment finding are communicated to all the relevant groups who will make decisions about the proposed projects, the project developers and their investors as well as regulators , planners and the politicians. Having read the conclusions of an environmental impact assessment, project planners and engineers can shape the project so that its benefits can be achieved and sustained with out causing adverse impacts. In recent years, major projects have encountered serious difficulties because insufficient account has been taken of their relationship with the surrounding environment. Some projects have been found to be unsustainable because of resource depletion. Others have been abandoned because of public opposition, financially encumbered by unforeseen costs, held liable for damages to natural resources and even been the cause of disastrous accidents. Given this experience, it is very risky to undertake finance, or approve a major project without first taking in to account its environmental consequences and then siting and designing the project so as to minimize adverse impacts. Due to public pressure on the government to accept accountability for the activities of its agencies the National Environmental Policy Act (NEPA) was formed in USA during 1970. This was the basis for the development of a mechanism which came to be known as Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA). THE EIA PROCESS IN INDIA The role for EIA was formally recognized at the earth summit held at Rio conference in 1992. Principle 17 of the Rio declaration states that – â€Å"EIA as a national instrument shall be undertaken for the proposed activities that are likely to have significant adverse impact on the environment and are subject to a decision of a competent national authority†. In India many of the developmental projects till as recently as the 1 980s were implemented with very little or no environmental concerns. The environmental issues began receiving attention when a national committee on environmental planning and coordination was set up under the 4th five year plan (19691978). Till 1980, the subjects of environment and forests were the concern of the Dept of Science and Technology and Ministry of Agriculture respectively. Later, the issues were formally attended by the Dept of Environment which was established in 1980. This was then upgraded to the Ministry of Environment Forest in 1985. In 1980, clearance of large projects from the environmental angle became an administrative requirement to the extent that the planning commission and the central investment board sought proof of such clearance before according financial sanction. Five year later, the Dept of Environment and Forests, Government of India, issued guidelines for Environmental Assessment of river valley projects. These guidelines require various studies such as impacts on forests and wild life in the submergence zone, water logging potential, upstream and down stream aquatic ecosystems and fisheries, water related diseases, climatic changes and sesmicity. A major legislative measures for the purpose of environmental clearance was in 1994 when specific notification was issued under section 3 and rule 5 of the environment protection Act , 1986 called the â€Å"Environment impact Assessment Notification 1994†. The first step in seeking environmental clearance for a development project is to determine what statutory legislations apply to the particular project. The MOEF has brought out several notifications restricting the development of industries in specified ecologically sensitive areas. In addition there are also draft rules framed for the siting of industries. Environmental clearance for development projects can be obtained either at the state level or at the central level depending on certain criteria concerning the characteristics of the project. However (regardless of where the final environmental clearance is obtained from), for most projects the consent must first be taken from the state pollution control board or pollution control committees in the case of union territories. 3 RESPONSIBILITY OF PREPARATION OF EIA STATEMENT The project proponent is responsible for the preparation of the EIA statement, with the help of external consultant or institution. THE IMPACT ASSESSEMENT AGENCY The MOEF is the agency for environmental clearance. If necessary, it may consult a committee of experts with a composition specified in schedule III of notification. TIMING OF EIA Ideally EIA should provide information to decision makers at early stage of the project planning cycle. It should be initiated as early as possible before the commencement of projects. If the projects secure approval, EIA should include a provision to cover the audit of the project. COST The amount allocated and spent for preparation of EIA by the project proponents are usually abysmally low compared to the overall project costs (often less than 1% of over all projects). 4 LIST OF PROJECTS REQUIRING ENVIRONMENTAL CLEARANCE FROM THE CENTRAL GOVERNMENT 1. Nuclear Power and related projects such as Heavy Water Plants, nuclear fuel complex, Rare Earths. 2. River Valley projects including hydel power, major Irrigation their combination including flood control. . Ports, Harbours, Airports (except minor ports and harbours). 4. Petroleum Refineries including crude and product pipelines. 5. Chemical Fertilizers (Nitrogenous and Phosphatic other than single superphosphate). 6. Pesticides (Technical). 7. Petrochemical complexes (Both Olefinic and Aromatic) and Petro-chemical intermediates such as DMT, Caprolactam, LAB etc. and production of basic plastics such as LLDPE, HDPE , PP, PVC. 8. Bulk drugs and pharmaceuticals. 9. Exploration for oil and gas and their production, transportation and storage. 10. Synthetic Rubber. 11. Asbestos and Asbestos products. 12. Hydrocyanic acid and its derivatives. 13 (a) Primary metallurgical industries (such as production of Iron and Steel, Aluminium, Copper, Zinc, Lead and Ferro Alloys). (b) Electric arc furnaces (Mini Steel Plants). 14. Chlor alkali industry. 15. Integrated paint complex including manufacture of resins and basic raw materials required in the manufacture of paints. 16. Viscose Staple fibre and filament yarn. 17. Storage batteries integrated with manufacture of oxides of lead and lead antimony alloys. 18. All tourism projects between 200m—500 metres of High Water Line and at locations with an elevation of more than 1000 metres with investment of more than Rs. 5 crores. 19. Thermal Power Plants. 20. Mining projects *(major minerals)* with leases more than 5 hectares. 21. Highway Projects **except projects relating to improvement work including widening and strengthening of roads with marginal land acquisition along the existing alignments provided it does not pass through ecologically sensitive areas such as National Parks, Sanctuaries, Tiger Reserves, Reserve Forests** 22. Tarred Roads in the Himalayas and or Forest areas. 23. Distilleries. 24. Raw Skins and Hides 25. Pulp, paper and newsprint. 26. Dyes. 27. Cement. 28. Foundries (individual) 29. Electroplating 30. Meta amino phenol 5 PROCESS There are two ‘tiers’ of assessment which should be applied to the project before proceeding with a full scale EIA, Screening and preliminary assessment. Where these first tiers of assessment are a regulatory requirement, the developer normally does the work and submits the results to the regulatory agency. The agency may then decide that either there is nothing to be concerned about or the evaluation should proceed to the next tier. The most important step in the process of obtaining environmental clearance under the EIA notification is for the project proponent to conduct an environmental impact assessment of the project. For this purpose the project proponent engages an environmental consultant to prepare an EIA report. The EIA report must be prepared by incorporation of data during all the four seasons of the year. Such an EIA is termed a â€Å"comprehensive EIA†. How ever, there is provision for a single season collection of data, but this should not be done during the monsoon season. Such an EIA reports is termed a â€Å"Rapid EIA†. There are two tiers of assessment which should be applied to the project before proceeding with a full scale EIA – Screening and Preliminary Assessment. Wherever these first tiers of assessment are a regulatory requirement, the developer normally does the work and submits the results to the regulatory agency. The agency may then decide whether there is anything to be concerned about or whether the evaluation should proceed to the next tier. BEFORE STARTING THE EIA SCREENING: The screening is the first and simplest tier in project evaluation. Screening helps to clear those types of projects, which from past experience are not likely to cause significant environmental problems. The activity may take one of the following several forms: 1- Measurements using simple criteria such as size or location. 2- Comparing the proposal with list of projects rarely needing an EIA (e. g. chools) or definitely needing one (e. g. coal mines). 3- Estimating general impacts (e. g. increased in infrastructure needed) and comparing these impacts against set thresholds. 4- Doing complex analyses, but using readily available data. Draw back in the Indian system: 1- Even though some of the industrial set ups do not require EIA as per the statutory norms, they might involve certain technological processes which cou ld be harmful to the environment, as a result of which such enlisted industries could have potential impacts on the environment and on public health. Exempting industries from the EIA requirements based on the investment value of specific projects is not acceptable. There are no specific studies conducted till now which demonstrate that environmental impacts are always inconsequential for projects under a given value. It is a well established fact that the small scale industries are contributing more pollution with respect to the major industry. 6 PRELIMINARY ASSESSMENT: If screening does not clear a project, the developer may be required to undertake a preliminary Assessment. This involves sufficient research, review of available data and expert advice in order to identify the key impacts of the project on the local environment, predict the extent of the impacts and briefly evaluate their importance to decision makers. The preliminary assessment can be used to assist early project planning (for instance, to narrow the discussion of possible sites) and it can serve as an early warning to the serious environmental problems that the project may cause. It is in the developer’s interest to do a preliminary assessment since, in practice, this step can clear projects of the need for a full EIA. If after reviewing a preliminary assessment the competent authority deems that a full EIA is needed, the next step for the project developer is the preparation of the EIA report. This entails 1- Commissioning and briefing an independent co-coordinator and expert study team. 2- Identifying the key decision makers who will plan, finance, permit and control the proposed project, so as to characterize the audience for the EIA. 3- Researching laws and regulations that will affect these decisions. 4- Making contact with each of various decision makers. Determining how and when the EIAs finding will be communicated. Draw back in the Indian system: It is being found that the team formed for conducting EIA studies is lacking the expertise in various fields such as Anthropologists and Social Scientists (to study the social impact of the project) or even wild life experts. FORMATION OF AN EIA TEAM: SCOPING: The first task of the EIA study team is scoping the EIA. The aim of scoping is to ensur e that the study address all the issues of importance to the decision makers. First of all the team’s outlook is broadened by the discussions (with the project proponents , decision makers, the regulatory agency, scientific institutions , local community representative and others) to include all the possible issues and concerns raises by various groups. Then the study team selects primary impacts for the EIA to focus upon depending on the basis of magnitude, geographical extent, significance to decision makers or because the area is special locally (e. g. soil erosion, the presence of an endangered species, or a near by historical sites) or is an eco-sensitive area. Draw back in the Indian system: 1- There is a lack of exhaustive ecological and socio-economic indicators for impact assessment. 2- Public comments are not taken into account at the early stage, which often leads to conflict at the later stage of project clearance. 7 MAIN EIA: After â€Å"scoping† the main EIA begins. The EIA attempts to answer five questions basically: 1- What will happen as a result of the project? 2- What will be the extent of the changes? 3- Do the changes matter? 4- What can be done about them? 5- How can decision makers be informed of what needs to be done? The EIA becomes a cyclic process of asking and further asking the first four questions until decision makers can be offered workable solutions. IDENTIFICATION: Identification means the answer to the first question, i. e. â€Å"what will happen as result of the project? † If a preliminary assessment has been done it will have broadly reviewed the projects effect, also scoping will have focused the study on the most important issues for decision makers. Taking these findings in to account the full EIA study now formally identifies those impacts which should be assessed in detail. This identification phase of the study may use these or other methods 1- Compile a list of key impacts (e. g. changes in air quality, noise levels, wild life habitats, species diversity, landscape views, social and cultural systems, settlement patterns and employment levels from other EIA s for similar projects) 2- Name all the projects sources of impacts (e. g. smoke emissions, water consumption, construction jobs) using checklists of questionnaires, then list possible receptors in the environment (e. g. rops, communities using same water for drinking, migrant of labour) by surveying the existing environment and consulting with interested parties. 3- Identify impacts themselves through the use of checklist, matrices, networks, overlays, models and simulations. Draw back in the Indian system: 1- There is always a lack of reliable data sources. 2- The secondary data is also not reliable. 3- The data collectors do not pay respect to the indigenous knowledge of local people. 4- The cred ibility of the primary data collected by the data collectors is doubtful. The next step called predictions answers the EIA’s second question: â€Å"what will be the extent of the changes†. As far as is practicable, prediction scientifically characterizes the impacts causes and effects and its secondary and synergetic consequences for the environment and the local community. Prediction follows an impact within a single environmental parameter (e. g. toxic liquid effluents) in to its subsequent effects in many disciplines (e. g. reduced water quality, adverse impacts on fisheries, economic effects on fishing villages, and resulting socio-cultural changes). Prediction draws on physical, biological, socioeconomic and anthropological data techniques . In quantifying impacts, it may employ mathematical models, physical models, socio cultural models, economic models, experiments or expert judgments. PREDICTION: 8 All prediction techniques by their nature involve some degree of uncertainty. So along with each attempt to quantify an impact, the study team should also quantify the predictions uncertainty in terms of probabilities or margins of error. Draw back in the Indian system: 1- The detail method used for the prediction and evaluation of the project is not mentioned in the report. Limited explanations are given both to quantitative estimation of magnitude of impact and to the assumptions and judgments used in the evaluation of impacts. 2- The limited coverage of scoping is confined mainly to direct impacts. The third question addressed by the EIA – do the changes matter is answered in the next step. Evaluation is so called because it evaluates the predicated adverse impacts to determine whether they are significant enough to warrant mitigation. Thus judgment of significance can be based on one or more of the followings. 1234Comparison with laws, regulations or accepted standards. Consultation with the relevant decision makers. Reference to pre set criteria such as protected sites features of species. Acceptability to the local community or the general public. EVALUATION: MITIGATION: In this phase the study team formally analyses mitigation. A wide range of measures are proposed to prevent, reduce, remedy or compensate for each of the adverse impacts evaluated as significant. Possible mitigation measures include: 1- Changing project sites, routes, processes, raw materials, operating methods, disposal methods, disposal routes or locations, timing or engineering designs. Introducing pollution controls, waste treatment monitoring, phased implementation, landscaping, personal training, special social services or public education. 3- Offering (as compensation) restoration of damaged resources, money to affected persons , concessions on other issues, or off site programmes to enhance some other aspects of the environment or quality of life for the community. All mi tigation measures cost something and this cost must be quantified too. These various measures are then compared, trade-offs between alternative measures are weighed, and the EIA study team proposes one or more action plans, usually combining a number of measures. The action plan may include technical control measures, an integrated management scheme (for a major project) monitoring, contingency plans, operating practices, project scheduling, or even joint management (with affected groups). The study team should explicitly analyze the implications of adopting different alternatives, to help make the choices clearer for the decision makers. Several analytical techniques are available for this purpose as given below: 1- Cost benefit analysis in which all quantifiable factors are converted to monetary values , and actions are assessed for their effect on project costs and benefits 2- Explaining what course of action would follow from various broad ‘value judgments’(e. g. that social impacts are more important than resources) 3- A simple matrix of environmental parameters versus mitigation measures, contain brief description of the effects of each measure. Pair wise comparisons, whereby the effects of an action are briefly compared with the effects of each of the alternative actions are briefly compared with the effects of each of the alternative actions, one pair at a time. Draw back in the Indian system: 1- Details regarding the effectiveness and implementation of mitigation measures are often not provided. 2- Often, and more so for strategic industries such as nuclear energy projected, the EMP s are kept confidential for political and administrative reasons 3- Emergency preparedness plans are not discussed in sufficient details and the information not disseminated to the communities. DOCUMENTATION: The last step in the EIA process, which answers the question – how decision makers be informed of what needs to be done? In documenting an EIA, this means identifying the key decisions makers, perceiving the question they will be asking and providing them with straight forward answers formatted for easy interpretation in relation to their decision making (e. g. tables, graphs, summary, points). Successful EIA documentation is more readily produced if the audience and their needs are established at the start of the EIA, and then made to affect how the research is focused and reported. It is the job of the study team’s communications expert to make this happen. An EIA report should contains: 1234An executive summary of the EIA findings. A description of the proposed development projects. The major environmental and natural resource issues that needed clarification and elaboration. The projects impacts on the environment (in comparison with a base line were identified and predicated. ). 5- A discussion of options for mitigating adverse impacts and for shaping the project to suit its proposed environment, and an analysis of the trade offs involved in choosing between alternative actions. An over view of gaps or uncertainties in the information. 7- A summary of the EIA for the general public. 10 Once the EIA reports has been completed, the project proponent needs to submit 20 copies of the copy of executive summary of the proposed proposal containing the salient features of the project, the form XII prescribed under water rules, 1975, form I prescribed under A ir rules,1983 and other information or documents to the SPCB for getting the non clearance certificate(NOC). On receiving the required documents from the project proponents it is the responsibility of the SPCB to conduct the public hearing. After completion of the public hearing the project proponents has to submit to the secretary of MOEF for the environmental clearance Draw back in the Indian system: One of the biggest concerns with the environmental clearance process is related to the quality of EIA report that are being carried out. The reports are generally incomplete and provided with false data. EIA reports ignore several aspects while carrying out assessments and significant information is found to omitted. Many EIA report are based on single season data and are not adequate to determine whether environmental clearance should be granted. All this makes the entire exercise contrary to its very intent. As things stand today, it is the responsibility of the project proponent to commission the preparation of the EIA for its project. The EIA is actually funded by an agency or individual whose primary interest is to procure clearance for the project proposed. There is little chance that the final assessment presented is un biased, even if the consultant may provide an unbiased assessment that is critical of the proposed project. Some times it is found that a consultancy which is working in the project area has no specialization in the concerned subject. For example for the preparation of EIA report of the proposed oil exploration in coast of Orissa by the reliance group has been given to the life science Dept of Berhampur university which has no expertise on the study of turtles and its life cycle. The EIA document in itself is so bulky and technical, which makes it very difficult to decipher so as to aid in the decision making process. There are so many cases of fraudulent EIA studies where erroneous data has been used, same facts used for two totally different places etc. This is due to the lack of a centralized baseline data bank, where such data can be crosschecked. There is no accreditation of EIA consultants, therefore any such consultant with a track record of fraudulent cases cannot be held liable for discrepancies. It is hard to imagine any consultant after being paid lakh of rupees, preparing a report for the project proponents, indicating that the project is not viable. In nearly every case, the consultants try to interpret and tailor the information looking for ways and means to provide their clients with a report that gives them their moneys worth. ENVIRONMENTAL APPRAISAL PROCEDURE The MOEF is the nodal agency for environmental clearance. The environmental division plays a key role, but the forest and wild life divisions are consulted when projects involve diversion of forestland or the alignment of roads and highways along or within the wild life areas. The project proponents of new projects must submit an application to the secretary, ministry of Environment and Forests, New Delhi in the standard Performa specified in the EIA notification. The application should be accompanied by a feasibility/ project report, including: 11 Environmental Appraisal questionnaire developed by MOEF. 2 Environment Impact Assessment Report. 3 Environment Management Plan and disaster Management plan 4 Details of public Hearing as in schedule IV of the notification (where ever necessary) 5 Rehabilitation plans (where ever necessary) 6 Forest clearance certificate (where ever necessary) 7 NOC from the state pollution control board (SPCB) The applicat ion is evaluated and assessed by the Impact Assessment Agency (IAA). The IAA may consult a committee of experts constituted by it or other body authorized by it in this regard, if necessary. The composition of the expert team is described in the box no-2 The committee has full right of entry and inspection of the site or factory premises prior to, during or after the commencement of the project . The IAA prepares a set of recommendations based on technical assessment of documents and data , furnished by the project authorities or collected during visits to sites or factories and details of public hearing. The assessment shall be completed with in 90 days from receipt of documents and data from the project authorities and completion of public hearing and decision conveyed within 30 days there after. If granted the clearance shall be valid for a period of five years for commencement of the construction or operation of the project. Draw back in the Indian system: There are several concerns with reference to the granting of environmental clearance of projects. Firstly, for projects that require site clearance it is often assumed by project proponents that once site clearance is granted, environmental clearance will follow. As a result, many project proponents begin construction of the project components (like housing colonies, roads), even before the environmental clearance is granted. This is despite the fact that it has been specified in the EIA notification that this should not be done. At another level, when environmental clearance is granted despite public objection / rejection , the reasons for the same are not conveyed to all those who have sent in written objections and/or attended the public hearing. There are very few ways to get information regarding project clearances. For those with access to the internet, the MOEF website seems to be of some help. However, very often the information on the website is updated much after the decision is taken. 12 For citizens and communities who do not have access to the internet, this information is not available. The availability of this information immediately after a decision on the clearance is taken is of crucial importance, in case it needs to be challenged before the National Environment Appellate Authority. The environmental clearance process after the public hearing appears to be a closed door secretive process as far as the public is concerned. In cases of environmental clearance being granted, the public have no access to the rational behind which the clearance was given. All that emits from the ministry are the conditions and recommendations based on which clearance is granted which often does not address the whole gamut of concerns and issues raised during public hearing. PUBLIC HEARING PROCESS IN INDIA A fully informed public participation has been recognized as an essential element in EIA. However, it was noted that public participation was a difficult exercise particularly if it led to a conflict between government policies and the public. Public hearing is not just an administrative exercise wherein a hearing is conducted to meet the requirements of the legislations. It is a measure to disclose all the relevant information regarding a developmental project to various sections of society, which are either affected by its implementation or have interests in project. In India public hearing of development projects has been made mandatory for environmental clearance by the Amendment to the EIA Notification of April 10, 1997 (Box no-3). The salient features of the public hearings notification are as follows: Notice for public hearing: The SPCB must issue notice for environmental public hearing by publishing it in at least two newspapers circulated in the region around the project. One of the publications must be in the vernacular language of the locality concerned. The date, time and place of public hearing should be mentioned in the newspaper article. The notice must be given at least 30 days prior to the public hearing. Involvement of the public: Written suggestions, views, comments and objection by the public can be handed over to the SPCB within 30 days from the date of publication of the notice. Oral /written suggestions can be made to the SPCB during the public hearing. Who can participate? All the affected person, including residents residing in and around the project site or the site of displacement or site of alleged adverse environmental impact. It also includes environmental groups and any association of persons whether incorporated or not, likely to be affected by the project and/or functioning in the field of environment. Persons who own or have control over the project can also participate. Access to the documents: The public are entitled to have access to the executive summary containing the salient features of the project, both in English as well as the lo

Why did Somalia Become a Failed State

Why did Somalia Become a Failed State Introduction The Fund for Peace categorizes states as failed according to its failed state index which is based on twelve indicators and this indicators are; â€Å"demographic pressure, massive movement of refugees and internally displaced persons that often demand humanitarian assistance, chronic human flight, sharp economic decline, de-legitimization of the state, deterioration of public service, suspension of the application of the rule of law, security apparatus operating as a state within a state, rise of factionalized elites and massive external intervention† (Haims 1).Advertising We will write a custom essay sample on Why did Somalia Become a Failed State? specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More Somalia is categorized by the Fund for Peace in the red zone due to the degree of erosion of the state legitimacy, lack of proper functioning state structures and its highly propensity violent conflict.  Somalia also falls in the Worl d Bank categorization of failed states. This is based on the following indicators: Security, economy, and government. Based on security, Somalia has constantly and continuously experienced conflict since 1991, there is breakdown in the maintenance law and order, there are increased insurgent groups and lack of proper functioning government. Economically, Somalia lacks an organized economic system; the conflict has resulted in the disruption of economic activities like farming and civil servants have been converted into fighters. Conflict also disrupts the supply chain and hence no foreign investor is willing to invest in such a fragile and volatile environment. On the government dimension, Governments in failed states are functionless and unable to provide essential services to the population. Since governments in failed states are rigid, authoritarian and corrupt, they become major impediment to efforts of the international community to offer assistance. Strong terms have been used in reference to failed states: â€Å"Failed states are tense, deeply conflicted, dangerous and contested bitterly by warring functions† (Rotberg 9). Just like any other third world country, Somalia underwent a transitional and transformational period. Transitions are always extremely difficult and involve several dynamic factors. Transition is always aimed at realizing several things and key among them are good leadership, good lifestyle and new regime. Countries often experience conflict and blood shed during transitional periods (Salih and Wohlgemuth 1).  Somalia underwent a period of crisis in 1980s and 1990s; this transformation affected its identity and direction which was majorly associated with its defeat in the Ogaden war with Ethiopia. This marked the period of diplomatic isolation. President Siad Barre took advantage of this opportunity to selfishly harness the resource of the state and perfected the art of playing one clan against the other and therefore aroused clan passions. The collapse of state structure in Somalia has roots in the 1991 civil war which replaced all administrative structures with clan based regional groups.Advertising Looking for essay on political sciences? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More This allegiance to the respective clans intensified following the fall of Siad Barre from power during the same year. Clan groups took the form of political parties which led to the civil war that pitted one tribe against another. Instead of embracing peace, the clans perfected the art of power struggle which led to the formation of clan based political parties like the Somali National Movement (SNM) for the Isaaq clan, SSDF for the Majeerteen clan and Somali National Movement (SNM) for the Ogaden. All this was formed for the sole reason of sharing the spoils of the state and ultimately led to the collapse of the state system (Fitzgerald 2). What made Somalia a failed state? In the eyes of the global policy forum, an international non-governmental cooperation, Somali is rated as the text book example of failed states in the world. This is because it cannot effectively fulfill its international obligation like repayment of its debt and is unable to uphold the effectiveness of state duties like the monopoly of violence and it cannot deter several forms of transnational crimes which thrive in its borders. Following the inter clan conflicts, the state collapsed and left the Somali clan organization unstable and fragile. This narrowed down to homes where a man’s two wives fought in the scramble for material resources. It is no doubt that Somalia is a perfect example of a failed state since it lacks legitimate government and it oscillates between anarchy and military rule. This is despite the intervention of United States and United Nation. The presence of small arms have proved detrimental to the existence of the state, this is also worsened by the unregulated entry of weapons through its porous borders.  The American foreign policy ranked Somalia as the leading failed state for the second year running in 2009. Unlike other failed states, Somalia lacks the fundamental characters of a state: the absence of central government since 1991 and characteristic anarchy caused by the warring factions.  Attempts to stabilize and restore the state of Somalia have failed and it is now being written off as being on the verge of collapse especially with the rise of Islamic insurgency. This is despite the massive international commitment especially from Ethiopia which has supported the situation by intervening militarily. Restoring Somalia has been overshadowed by piracy and international community has committed itself to fighting piracy as opposed to salvaging Somalia.Advertising We will write a custom essay sample on Why did Somalia Become a Failed State? specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More The Genesis of the Failure The genesis of the failure of Somalia state can be traced to the cold war geopolitics and its geostrategic position, the feudal character of Somalia politics and the significance of its clan politics. Despite being strategic during the cold war period, the end of cold war left Somalia with a permanent scar that has refused to vanish and has been left on its own by the international community. After the end of the civil war that removed Siad Barre, the state of Somalia stopped functioning and this worsened after the withdrawal of international aid. This inability to discharge its duties as a state qualified Somalia as a failed state. This collapse still remains till the present, it lacks internationally accepted political system, lacks formal authority, it lacks functional judicial system, it lacks well function security apparatus and also lacks commercial and trading system like insurance and banking systems and also no basic social facilities like health or education system (Hironaka 5). Somalia is totally collapsed 1991 marked the collapse of Mogadishu and the end of the regime of Siad Barre. This was after the defeat of Barre regime by the coalition of clans under the umbrella of United Somali Congress (USC). The loose coalition of clans later turned against the other. This was because Barre left from power unexpectedly and this created a power vacuum which was occupied by the Manifesto group. Besides the inter clan feud, the collapse of Somalia state may be linked to religion. Majority of Somalis are Sunni Muslims and loyalty to Islam is considered fundamental. The 1969 revolution created a way for socialism; an ideological change that attracted widespread criticism which led to executions of religious leaders who were earlier prohibited from engaging in politics joint government. Scholars describe Somalia as the leviathan state as described by Thomas Hobbes where everyman turns against everyman and this situation leads to violent deaths. In this leviathan state, life is short, nasty and cruel.  Despite the fact that clans were united in the removal of Siad Barre from power, they lacked direction and vision about the future of the country. They themselves perpetuated the civil war after the ousting of Siad Barre where the dominant Somali National Movement (SNM) objected the legitimacy of the provisional government that was formed by the United Somali Congress (USC).  This resulted in the SNM establishing their breakaway state they referred as the independent republic of Somaliland in the region that was earlier British Somali land.Advertising Looking for essay on political sciences? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More The policies of Siad Barre and his style of and consequently the end of the civil strife that removed him from power left the Somali economy in tatters and in need for reformation. Instead of the opposition concentrating on building the state and restoring its apparatus, they initiated another civil war in the process of competing for political power in this process, the state collapsed and resulted in widespread violence as rival clan militia groups turned against one another. This led also to the collapsed state economy and destruction of urban centers. The â€Å"loose alliance between clans and sub-clans divided the country into clan fiefdoms and both fighting to control any of the town† (Kreijen 1).  The current failure of the Somalia state and the subsequent collapse of state institutions are largely associated with the regime of Siad Barre. After coming to power following the 1969 revolution, he was considered the only president to unite and salvage Somalia state but his defeat in the Ogaden war humiliated him and forced him to be authoritarian, a fact that exposed his regime to opposition. This drove Barre to usurp control by exploiting clan emotions and his survival in power depended on the loyalty of his clan and family. Opposition groups mushroomed all with intention of overthrowing Barre. This turn of events forced Barre to adopt brutal ways to sustain his leadership. This brutal ways made Barre to order the poisoning of water wells and also gunning down of livestock that belonged to the opposition. This led to anger that strengthened the resolve of the opposition and guerilla groups determined to oust Barre, a feat that was achieved by the USC. It has also been noted that â€Å"the deposition of Barre led to the emergence of formidable clan politics which cast doubt on the stability and unity of Somali† (Kreijen 1). The above events resulted in street wars in the city of Mogadishu that involved several clans using armed means to jus tify claims on political power. Government disintegrated, and state institutions collapsed which rendered the state unable to provide to basic services to its population. This resulted to anarchy. The collapse of the Barre regime and the decline of Mogadishu resulted in an anarchic Somalia that was characterized by havoc and emergence of power hungry warlords who could not consolidate the state power but only interested in curtailing ant international humanitarian agencies who were interested in salvaging and averting the humanitarian crisis that was looming since a lot of people had started dying of hunger and starvation and this laid the foundation for a totally failed or collapsed state of Somali. After the collapse of the Barre regime, USC assumed power and appointed its own Mohammed Ali who served the State under the 1979 constitution. When USC fully assumed power, another splinter group of USC developed; this group supported the union between USC and SNM and was led by Mohamme d Farah Aidid who emerged as Mohammed’s main challenger and later Aideed established its own government in southern Mogadishu. Later in 1991 Farah staged a coup and declared him self the president.  The withdrawal of the UN forces has also contributed to the state failure of Somalia since it halted rejuvenation and reconstruction of Somalia. Also the exit of the UN forces in 1994 led to the continuation of the civil war. Consequently, the unwillingness of the international community to assist Somali has worsened the Somalia situation. The establishment of the Transitional National Government (TNG) could not deliver its mandate because it lacked enough material resources to reinforce its administrative and authority over the territory. The United States launched a spirited campaign together with its allies to put pressurize the United Nation to withdraw from Somalia and this happened in 1994.This has resulted in Somali losing support and legitimacy and has made it vulnerable to opposition entities from both Somaliland and punt land (Kreijen 1). The presence of small and heavy weapons in the hands of militias and warlords promote the anarchic situation of Somalia. Lack of international and conventional standard on small arms has made this situation unbearable (Mentah 4). The Ethiopia factor has largely contributed to the state failure of Somali. This is due to the change of Ethiopia’s policy towards the Arab world. Ethiopia has considered itself a dominant hegemony in the horn of Africa region and largely fears radical and fundamental Islamic groups who are threat to their territory due to its proximity to Islamic countries like Sudan, Eritrea and Egypt. Since Somalia shares a long border with Ethiopia. The border has always been heavily latent with conflict and Ethiopia guards the border jealously since it is wary of radical Islamic and fundamentalists that may cross over to its territory and hence it has always sponsored insurgencies who believ e in their ideals hence perpetuating internal wrangles in Somali affairs. The transitional federal government which is largely supported by the Arab countries has been facing opposition from groups that are sponsored by Ethiopia that has often escalated into war of emissaries (Liberman 6).  Consequently, terror networks that existed since 1990s and created by Iran, Bin laden and Sudan like the al shaabab and Al-Itihad al-islamiya still continue to exert their influence against the government. These movements have been cooperating with the al Qaida (Somalia 1).  Somalia’s irredentisms plans have always led to its absolute rejection by the neighboring countries and thud always contributed to the nature of Somalia state. Consequently the geostrategic position of Somalia in the horn of Africa has made it a center of attraction to the major powers. These powers at times sponsor even warlords. The war between the clans is growing destructive every day (Metaferia 34).  The por osity of the borders of the Somalia state has also exposed its fragility. Majority of the clans in Somalia are nomads and their frequent migration is always threat to the fixed international boundaries. The response by the UN humanitarian mission and the force deployed to restore peace in Somalia in 1992 contributed to the failure of state of Somalia. The UN mission was heavily attacked by armed groups which forced US to initiate operation. This took a different turn when18 US soldiers were killed and their bodies paraded along the streets of Mogadishu which halted the peace keeping mission (Calvert 10). The 4 unequal distributions of national resources also contributed to the failure of Somalia. The strategic position of Somalia in the horn of Africa made it critical during the world war and it received massive resources and arms. The existing leadership allocated resources based on clannism and clan affiliation. This attracted resentment from the marginalized clans who in turn too k arms and revolted against the government of the day (Besteman 9). The failure of Somalia was also necessitated by the heavy presents of high powered weaponry which were dumped in the country during the cold war era and remained a major threat to peace and security of Somalia citizens. This was the dangerous wound that Somalia inherited from the cold war which made Somalia an arsenal spot (Mohamed 6). No individual could have predicted that piracy will one day be an international menace. Unlike in other countries even those that are failed have ineffective police force, the striking thing about Somalia is that it lacks all national institutions and this has piracy thrive along the gulf of Eden. The emergence of sophisticated art of piracy has worsened the Somalia situation. These pirates are not linked to insurgent groups in Somalia but they pay money to those who control the coastal waters, these proceeds from piracy are always used to procure weapons that can be used to maintain the conflict (Akpinarli 1).  The heavy international intervention in Somalia is also another characteristic depicting it as a failed state. Several meeting have been convened to discuss the Somalia situation but the intentions of these meetings are not always intentioned to solving the Somalia crisis but each state pushes for its own interest. The reluctance of the mediators to engage the Islamist opposition leaves the mediation without a practical course since it will not have involved all the parties (Besterman 3). Piracy is a sign of power vacuum and failure of the state and the transitional federal government is powerless to stop the thriving business of piracy. Piracy on one hand and insurgents and militias on the other hand has rendered the government powerless and functionless (Economist 1). The intensification of piracy in the gulf of Eden in relation to the widespread chaos in somalia prompted resolution of United Nation chapter 7 sponsored by the George Bush administrati on that resulted in the labeling of piracy as a threat to the international peace and security (Washington times 1). Beside the piracy menace, Somalia has also become a free economic zone. This means all kind of legal and illegal businesses are carried out within the boundaries of Somalia. All kinds of smuggling and trafficking of arms and weapons and also smuggling of migrants to Yemen are done through the gulf of Eden. It has been argued that it is difficult to avert the piracy menace without a politically stable Somalia (International Crisis Group 1).  Power in Somalia has been passed in the hands of insurgencies and clan warlords and the transitional federal governments lack the capacity to effectively combat these rising factionalized groups. The Somalis have limited freedom of speech, expression, opinion and press; there is also widespread violation of human rights. The recruitment of children into these organized militias and into terrorism groups like the al shaabab since all these gangs are driven by the motive of swelling their crowd (Mohammed 1). Another justification for Somalia collapse is the continuous emergence of armed groups that keep on dividing Somalia among themselves and these divisions led to the rise of fiefdoms that the warlords fought over. Consequently, the bid for autonomy and independence by Somaliland and puntland has not been recognized by the international community or the African countries. This has been considered as a weakness in the side of the central government to control these regions. The central government no longer controls the entire territory but only controls some few kilometer circumferences from the town of Mogadishu (Mubarak 6). The formation of Transitional Federal Government (TFG) by exiled groups in Kenya and the international support it is accorded, has failed in its effort to create a widely accepted government and instead it has perpetuated the culture of clan marginalization and divisions based on clan a ffiliations. Conclusion The prospect of Somalia recovering from its status as a failed state sill remains a tall order. This is because the same factors that lead to the present situation are still intact. The same warlords that helped create the disaster and the culture of clannism and clan loyalty still exist. None of the warlords and insurgent groups is willing to negotiate for power and as history tells even a negotiated deal will not last for long. The same ingredients that forced the Somalia state to go into war are intact and alliance between clans will always remain fluid. What enhances the volatility of Somalia situation is the presence of heavy weapons and also constant supply of weapons from its porous borders. This has made it difficult for the international community to regulate the situation and it has been rendered out of option on its efforts to save Somalia from total collapse. Somalia has lapsed into the greatest degree of anarchy and the efforts by the internation al community to save the situation have always failed due to lack of willingness by the warring factions to support international efforts and also thriving piracy has always worsened the conflicts. This has left Somalia on its own. This was evidenced by the desire of Ethiopia to withdraw its forces that amounted to 2000 is likely to create a climate of fear and uncertainty. This is a show of frustration by the Ethiopia following the realization that the war against insurgency is deteriorating and the insurgencies are as a result of Ethiopia occupation which they unanimously accept. The Somalia situation can therefore be improved by ensuring the mediation efforts involve all the warring clans and more so. Since no international efforts have helped to save the situation, the Somalis themselves can be given the opportunity to decide their own destiny with minimum interference from external parties. Akpinarli, Neyire. The fragility of the failed state paradigm: a different internationa l law perception of the absence of effective government Volume 63 of Developments in international law. New York: BRILL, 2009. Print. Besterman, Lowe. Unraveling Somalia: race, violence, and the legacy of slavery;  The ethnography of political violence. Pennsylvania: University of Pennsylvania Press, 1999. Print. Calvert, Peter. Terrorism, Civil War, and Revolution: Revolution and International Politics, 3rd ed. New York: Continuum International Publishing Group, 2010. Print. Economist. The worlds most utterly failed state. The Econimist, 2008. Web. Fitzgerald, Nina. Somalia: issues, history, and bibliography. New York: Nova Publishers. Print. Haims, Marla. Breaking the failed-state cycle Volume 204 of Occasional paper. New York: Rand Corporation, 2008. Print. International Crisis Group. Somalia to move beyond the failed states. African report no.8 de. Scribd, 2008. Web. Kreijen,Gerard. State failure, sovereignty and effectiveness: legal lessons from the decolonization of Sub-Saha ran Africa Volume 50 of Developments in international law. New York: Martinus Nijhoff Publishers, 2004. Print. Liberman, Rachel. The Red Sea terror triangle: Sudan, Somalia, Yemen, and Islamic terror International relations Middle East military studies, Transaction. New York: Prentice hall, 2006. Print. Mentah, Tatah. Dilemmas of weak states: Africa and transnational terrorism in the twenty-first century, Contemporary perspectives on developing societies. New York: Ash gate Publishing, 2004. Print. Metaferia, Getachew. Ethiopia and the United States: History, Diplomacy, and Analysis. New York: Algora, 2009. Print. Mohammed, Abdullah. State collapse and post-conflict development in Africa: the case of Somalia (1960-2001). New York: Purdue University Press, 2006. Print. Mubarak, Jamil. From bad policy to chaos in Somalia: how an economy fell apart. New York: Greenwood Publishing Group, 1996. Print. Salih, Mohamed and Wohlgemuth, Lennart. Crisis management and the politics of reconcili ation in Somalia: statements from the Uppsala Forum, 17-19 January 1994. Nairobi: Nordic Africa Institute, 1994. Print. Somalia. Somalia: U.S. government policy and challenges. New York: DIANE Publishing, 2003. Print. Washington times. Piracy Compounds: Woes of a failed state. Washington, 2008. Web.

How to make make money online Article Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

How to make make money online - Article Example This is the final step in devising a website that serves a number of different purposes. There are thousands of free website sites which could be used to earn money online. The website standards need to be followed in order to gain success in the long run. Also how to start a webpage for free is a similar undertaking that must be properly understood so that a person could find ways to earn money online (Koch 1996). These are significant measures that will bring success for the domains of someone who believes a great deal in making money online. One most important point here is to properly check the website again and again to know that money making ways are up and running, and that there are no difficulties in the wake of making more money with the changing times. Works Cited Koch, Tom. The Message is the Medium: Online All the Time for Everyone. Praeger Publishers, 1996 Ploster, George. Making Money as an Aggregator. Online, 28, March 2004 Smith, Jennifer. Online Learning and Teachin g in Higher Education. Open University Press, 2007

Repealing National Prohibition in the USA Term Paper

Repealing National Prohibition in the USA - Term Paper Example However, this was not the first time that alcohol was under prohibition in America. The state of Maine was the first state in America to prohibit alcohol; this was far back in the 1850s3. The law made it illegal to possess, manufacture, distribute, consume, advertise, give, or remove alcohol or alcohol-based recipes from a residence or business premise4. The main group that facilitated the implementation of the prohibition was the Anti Saloon League (ASL), a powerful organization that had the support of a majority of the members of the Congress5. People who formulated the law thought that the law would help in reducing the vices in the society, which were associated with alcohol; however, the law elicited widespread debate on the subject. Among the people who were actively involved in the debate were the women who formed two opposing groups. One of the groups, women Christian Temperance Union (WCTU), advocated for the prohibition whereas another group, the Women Organization for Nati onal Prohibition Repeal (WONPR), was against the prohibition6. The main reason that led to the formation of organizations, which were against the prohibition, was that prohibition had led to a significant increase in crime. In addition, prohibition turned people who were previously law-abiding citizens to become criminals7. In addition, prohibition threatened to lead to the moral disintegration of the American society as the people who were supposed to enforce the law were under implication several times in corruption scandals8. Apart from the effects, the prohibition had on the crime rates it also negatively affected several sectors of the economy, which used to provide the livelihoods of millions of America either directly or indirectly. One of the sectors under great impact was the wine industry9. Therefore, for the successful implementation, the government should have first tries to build a consensus and evaluate the effects of the prohibition instead of forcing it down on peopl e10. Annotated Bibliography Behr, Edward. Prohibition: thirteen years that changed America. NY: Arcade Publishing, Inc. 1996. The book offers a comprehensive study of the prohibition of alcohol. It tries to devise reasons that may have brought about certain people to advocate for prohibition strongly. Throughout the book, the author uses temperance to explain why a certain group of people, notably, the Anti-Saloon League (ASL), successfully used temperance to show why alcohol should confront prohibition. In the book, the author tries to analyze the propaganda spread by the ASL to impose fines on certain alcohol manufacturers. The ASL sometimes played the racial cards and tried to capture the American’s hatred towards the Germans to help in the advancement of its goals of imposing prohibition. The author develops the story by showing how â€Å"the good creature of God,† (referring to alcohol) has been an integral part of America. The author even states that the founding president of America, George Washington used to spend huge sums of money on alcohol. By considering these various prominent parties, which were involved and affected, the author is able to paint a more vivid picture of this era.

Critical Analysis on the Prevention of Tissue Breakdown on Grade 2 Essay

Critical Analysis on the Prevention of Tissue Breakdown on Grade 2 Pressure Ulcer at Sacral Area of Patient with Public Rami - Essay Example As a senior nurse, this incident was significant because it provided efficient cues on the management of pressure ulcers, including preventing infection, preventing its progression to higher pressure ulcer grades, as well as promoting efficient and speedy patient recovery. The main clinical issues which arose from the incident included the following: prevention of tissue breakdown of pressure ulcer, promoting mobility, and preventing infection. This study sought to establish how the author could make a difference or improve the care for the patient as a senior nurse in her department. Main Body The management for this patient included several nursing interventions. These interventions included the following: regular assessment of pressure ulcer and of other pressure points in the body, promoting early mobility at least every two hours, keeping the patient’s sacrum and back clean and dry at all times, regular cleaning of pressure ulcer, placing pressure-reducing overlays on mat tresses, chairs, and other surfaces used by patient (Bluestein and Javaheri, 2008). These interventions help promote wound healing as well as help prevent the progression of the pressure ulcer to higher grades (Bluestein and Javaheri, 2008). Pressure ulcers are one of the most difficult wounds to manage and heal. Once they manifest, they are often not responsive to antibiotic therapy (Paquay, et.al., 2010). Moreover, complete healing is not always possible. For those under long-term care, the degree of healing often depends on the primary stages of the pressure ulcer (Paquay, et.al., 2010). Where the initial stages are managed well, the healing rate is high, however, as the grade level of the pressure ulcer progresses, the rate of healing is also reduced (Paquay, et.al., 2010). Prevention and early management of pressure ulcers is therefore an important consideration in the management of chronic care patients. Patient Assessment The assessment process in pressure ulcers is one of th e initial and important elements in the management of pressure ulcers. There are various assessment scales which have been recommended for use by experts. In the UK, the European Pressure Ulcer (EUPAP) Grading System has been recommended for use (NHS, 2012). Based on patient assessment, the patient manifests with a Grade 2 pressure ulcer with some of the outer surface of the skin damaged. The ulcer manifests as an open wound or blister (NHS, 2012). The goal for this patient now is to promote the healing of such ulceration, to prevent its progression (higher grade levels), as well as its infection. Assessment of a pressure ulcer also involved the complete medical assessment of the patient, including the onset as well as the duration of the pressure ulcer, including his history of pressure ulcers (Bluestein and Javaheri, 2008). This was the patient’s first time to have a pressure ulcer and the pressure ulcer started to manifest about two weeks following his injury. His wound ca re mostly involved standard dressings which were changed daily. He had difficulty changing positions on the bed and mostly stayed in one position all day. He was of regular body build, with a BMI within the normal levels. He was alert and socially responsive, especially with his family and with the hospital staff. He had limited assistance when discharged as it was only him and his wife in their house. They needed support services at home. There was one grade 2 pressure ul

Proactive and Reactive Cyber Forensics Investigation Process

Proactive and Reactive Cyber Forensics Investigation Process PROACTIVE CYBER FORENSIC ANALYSIS Proactive And reactive cyber forensics investigation processes: A Systematic Literature Review(SLR) A multi-component framework of cyber forensics investigation Abstract—Digital Forensics can be defined as the ensemble of methods, tools and techniques used to collect, preserve and analyze digital data originating from any type of digital media involved in an incident with the purpose of extracting valid evidence for a court of law. In it investigations are usually performed as a response to a digital crime and, as such, they are termed Reactive Digital Forensic (RDF). This involves identifying, preserving, collecting, analyzing, and generating the final report. Although RDF investigations are effective, they are faced with many challenges, especially when dealing with anti-forensic incidents, volatile data and event reconstruction. To tackle these challenges, Proactive Digital Forensic (PDF) is required. By being proactive, DF is prepared for incidents. In fact, the PDF investigation has the ability to proactively collect data, preserve it, detect suspicious events, analyze evidence and report an incident as it occurs. Index Terms—Digital forensics, Digital Proactive Forensics, Digital reactive forensics, Digital device storage, digital crime, Anti forensics, multi component framework Introduction Computer crimes have increased tremendously and their degree of sophistication has also advanced, the volatility and dynamicity of the information that flows between devices require some proactive investigation. The reactive investigation is now becoming less practical since the increased sizes of the data that is being investigated and underlying technology of the devices that change tremendously make the tools made for digital reactive forensics useless In order to investigate anti-forensic attacks and to promote automation of the live investigation, a proactive and reactive functional process has been proposed.. The phases of the proposed proactive and reactive digital forensics investigation process have been mapped to existing investigation processes. The proactive component in the proposed process has been compared to the active component in the multi- component framework. All phases in the proactive component of the new process are meant to be automated. To this end, a theory for the proactive digital forensics is necessary to lay down a strong foundation for the implementation of a reliable proactive system. I. Anti-Forensics The term anti-forensics refers to methods that prevent forensic tools, investigations, and investigators from achieve- ing their goals. Two examples of anti-forensic methods are data overwriting and data hiding. From a digital investigation perspective, anti-forensics can do the following: Prevent evidence collection. Increase the investigation time. Provide misleading evidence that can jeopardize the whole investigation. Prevent detection of digital crime. To investigate crimes that rely on anti-forensic methods, more digital forensic investigation techniques and tools need to be developed, tested, and automated. Such techniques and tools are called proactive forensic processes. Proactive forensics has been suggested in. To date, however, the definition and the process of proactive forensics have not been explicated. II. Proactive digital forensics Proactive Digital Forensic Component has the ability to proactively collect data, preserve it, detect suspicious events, gather evidence, carry out the analysis and build a case against any questionable activities. In addition, an automated report is generated for later use in the reactive component. The evidence gathered in this component is the proactive evidence that relates to a specific event or incident as it occurs. As opposed to the reactive component, the collection phase in this component comes before preservation since no incident has been identified yet. Phases under the proactive component are defined as follows: Proactive Collection: automated live collection of predefined data in the order of volatility and priority, and related to a specific requirement of an organization or incident. Proactive Preservation: automated preservation, via hashing, of the evidence and the proactively collected data related to the suspicious event. Proactive Event Detection: detection of suspicious event via an intrusion detection system or a crime-prevention alert. Proactive Analysis: automated live analysis of the evidence, which might use forensics techniques such as data mining and outlier detection to sup- port and construct the initial hypothesis of the incident. Report: automated report generated from the proactive component analysis. This report is also important for the reactive component and can serve as the starting point of the reactive investigation.[1] III Reactive Digital Forensics It the traditional or post-mortem approach of investigating a digital crime after an incident has occurred. This involves identifying, preserving, collecting, analyzing, and generating the final report. Two types of evidence are gathered under this component: Active: Active evidence refers to collecting all live (dynamic) evidence that exists after an incident. An example of such evidence is processes running in memory. Reactive : refers to collecting all the static evidence remaining, such as an image of a hard drive. Previous Work Proactive Vs Reactive Forensics Investigation framework Complexity of Digital Forensics investigation Digital attacks are so complex that it is hard to investigate them forensically. The elements involved in a digital crime are located in a large multidimensional space and cannot be easily identified. With the increase of storage size and memory sizes, and the use of parallelism, virtualization and cloud, the parameters to take into account during an investigation can even become unmanageable. Five fundamental principles The five fundamental principles are stated below: Principle 1 Consider the entire system. This includes the user space as well as the entire kernel space, file system, network stack, and other related subsystems. Principle 2 Assumptions about expected failures, attacks, and attackers should not control what is logged. Trust no user and trust no policy, as we may not know what we want in advance. Principle 3 Consider the effects of events, not just the actions that caused them, and how those effects may be altered by context and environment. Principle 4 Context assists in interpreting and understanding the meaning of an event. Principle 5 Every action and every result must be processed and presented in a way that can be analyzed and understood by a human forensic analyst. These five are for reactive analysis , for proactive there must be some new principles. Soltan Abed Albari proposed the following two : Principle 6 Preserve the entire history of the system. Principle 7 Perform the analysis and report the results in real time. By preserving the entire history of the system, we can go back in time and reconstruct what has happened and answer reliably all the necessary questions about an event or incident. The reconstructed timeline is based on the actual states of the system before and after the event or incident. In addition and due to the large amount of data, events and actions involved, performing a proactive analysis and reporting require real time techniques that use high-performance computing. The analysis phase should be automated and have the necessary intelligence to investigate the suspicious events in real time and across multiple platforms. Figure 1 Relation between action ,target events[1] In addition to the actions and events that the seven principles listed above emphasize, we introduce the notion of targets. A target is any resource or object related to the system under investigation e.g., a file, memory, register, etc. We will use an element of DF investigation to refer to a target, an action or an event. At a time t and as shown in Figure 3.1, the system is in the process of executing an action that reacts to some targets and events, and produces new targets and events or modifies the existing ones. A model for Proactive digital forensics The model below has two major parts Forward system Feedback system Forward system is the one upon which investigation is performed. Both systems the forward and the feedback can be modelled as a tuple (T,E,A), where T is a set of targets, E is a set of events, and A is a set of possible actions each of which is viewed as a transfer function of targets and events. To clarify this, each target f ∈ T is associated with a set S(f) representing the possible states in which it can be. The Cartesian product of S(f) for all targets f defines the state space of the system’s targets and we denote it by T . We do the same for every event e but we consider S(e) to contain two and only two elements, namely ↑ (triggered event) and ↓ (not triggered event). The Cartesian product of all the system’s events (S(e) for every event e) is denoted by E (status space). An action a is therefore a function from Γ Ãâ€" T Ãâ€" E to T Ãâ€" E, where Γ represents the time dimension. The evolution function ψ is defined from Γ Æ" (T Ãâ€" E) Ãâ€" A to T Ãâ€" E by ψ(t,(~r,~e),a) = a(t,~r,~e)3. At a time t ∈ Γ, an event e is triggered if its status at time t is ↑, and not triggered ↓ otherwise. The notation ↑t e will be used to denote that the event e is triggered at time t Figure 2 proactive model[1] The forward system has three things that are linked. Target, event and action A. Target A target is any resource or object related to the system under investigation (e.g., a file, memory, register, etc.. We will use an element of DF investigation to refer to a target, an action or an event. At a time t system is in the process of executing an action that reacts to some targets and events, and produces new targets and events or modifies the existing ones. Therefore to describe the dynamics of the system at a single instant t, one needs to know at least the states of the targets, the events generated and the actions executed at t. For a full description of the dynamics, these elements of investigation need to be specified at every instant of time; and the complete analysis of the dynamics of the system requires a large multidimensional space Equations B. Events and Actions Keeping track of all events and targets is expensive. To reduce them, a few classifications using preorder and equivalence relations. To illustrate the idea behind these classifications, imagine a botnet writing into a file. This event will trigger other events including checking the permission on the file, updating the access time of the file, and writing the data to the actual disk. The idea behind our formalization is to be able to know which events are important (maximal) and which ones can be ignored. The same thing holds for the targets .This will optimize the cost and time . Short Theory on Events Let e1 and e2 be two events in E. We defined the relation ≠¤E on E as follows: e1 ≠¤E e2 if and only if ( ⇠Ã¢â€¡â€™ ) whenever the event e1 happens at a time t, the event e2 must also happen at a time t0 greater than or equal to t. Formally, this can be expressed as: e1 ≠¤E e2 ⇠Ã¢â€¡â€™ (∀t ↑t e1 ⇒ âˆÆ't0 ≠¥ t ↑t0 e2) Subsequent events are those which are less than e . Short theory on targets Let ÃŽ ¨ be the mapping from T to E (Figure 3.10) that associates each target with its change of status event. The mapping ÃŽ ¨ and ≠¤E induces a preorder relation ≠¤T defined by T1 ≠¤T T2 ⇠Ã¢â€¡â€™ ÃŽ ¨(T1) ≠¤E ÃŽ ¨(T2) Informally, this means that whenever target T1 changes at time t the target T2 must change at t0 ≠¥ t. Short Theory on Actions The set of actions A is extended to  ¯ A using the following operators: An associative binary operator called sequential operator and denoted by ;. Given two actions a1 and a2, the action a1;a2 is semantically equivalent to carrying out a1 and then a2 (the two transfer functions are in series). Note that ∅A is a neutral element of A with respect to ; (i.e., a;∅A = ∅A;a = a for every action a). A commutative binary operator called parallel operator and denoted by ||. In this case a1||a2 is equivalent to carrying a1 and a2 simultaneously (the two transfer functions are in parallel). The action ∅A is also a neutral element of A with respect to ||. A conditional operator defined as follows. Given two conditions ci and ce in C, and an action a, the operator ciace represents the action of iteratively carrying out a only when ci is true and stopping when ce is false. That is denoted by a ce. Note that if both are true, then ci a ce is a. Zone Base Classification of Investigation Space To address the limitation of the classification described previously and address the undesirability issue , classify the event and target state into a set of priority zones. These zones can be represented with different colors: green, yellow, and red; starting from a lower priority to a higher one. When important events/targets with high-priority levels are triggered, a more thorough analysis is expected. Moreover, the zones can be used as a quantifying matrix that provides numbers reà ¯Ã‚ ¬Ã¢â‚¬Å¡ecting the certainty level for the occurrence of an incident. In our case, this number is an important piece of information in the final report. The high-priority events can involve one of the following: IDS, Antivirus, Firewall off and changing the windows system32 folder. On the other hand, the high-priority targets are the system32 folder, registry, network traà ¯Ã‚ ¬Ã†â€™c and memory dump. Given that the number of targets and events are large, this classification is not enough, especially during the analysis phase. As such, we need to reduce the forensic space. Similar to the principal component analysis technique [59], we suggest restrict- ing the analysis to â€Å"important† targets and events based on a specific organization policy. This can be seen as projecting the full forensic space F onto a sub-space F0 in which the evidence is most probably located. Figure 3 Zone base classification [1] Conclusion In this paper we proposed a new approach to resolve cybercrime using Proactive forensics with focusing on the Investigation space for proactive investigation. This paper reviews literature on Proactive forensic approaches and their processes. It has a method for proactive investigation to be carried out significantly. In order to investigate anti-forensics methods and to promote automation of the live investigation, a proactive functional process has been proposed. The proposed process came as result of SLR of all the processes that exist in literature. The phases of the proposed proactive digital forensics investigation process have been mapped to existing investigation processes. For future work , the investigation space profiling is to be done on events and targets in the space. References Proactive System for Digital Forensic Investigation, Soltan Abed Alharbi, 2014 University of Victoria Mapping Process of Digital Forensic Investigation Framework A new approach for resolving cybercrime in network forensics based on generic process model. Mohammad Rasmi1, Aman Jantan2, Hani Al-MimiY. Yorozu, M. Hirano, K. Oka, and Y. Tagawa, A System for the Proactive, Continuous, and Eà ¯Ã‚ ¬Ã†â€™cient Collection of Digital Forensic Evidence Towards Proactive Computer-System Forensics Requirements-Driven Adaptive Digital Forensics Multi-Perspective Cybercrime Investigation Process Modeling A Forensic Traceability Index in Digital Forensic Investigation Network/Cyber Forensics Smartphone Forensics: A Proactive Investigation Scheme for Evidence Acquisition

Organic Foods: America is Making Healthier Food Choices Essay -- Nutri

Many people in America believe that we should eat healthier foods. However, a large portion of the advertising created for food in America is focused on unhealthy foods and products, many of which are nutritionally poor and easily accessible to much of the population. This results in a contradictory ideal towards improvement of health, where individuals will constantly eat unhealthy foods and struggle to lose the weight that they will knowingly gain. If people in the modern American society were to focus more on consuming organic foods and products, people would be healthier, reducing high medical costs and improving the overall well-being of Americans. The benefits of organic foods should also be introduced to children in schools so they will be given the choice to shape their own eating habits for the future. The use of harsh chemicals in large-scale crop production is a common issue with non-organic crops. Intended to prevent pests and insects from destroying crops, pesticides and insecticides are often absorbed by the crops and are ingested by humans. Paige Parvin, a writer for Emory Magazine, addresses this issue in her article â€Å"Poison Apples†. In a study done by Chensheng Lu, assistant professor of Environmental and Occupational Health at Emory University’s Rollins School of Public Health, focused on suburban children being exposed to organophosphate pesticides in food, a chemical linked to nerve gas that is used in farming (Parvin). Lu states, â€Å"What really surprised us is that the outcome reflects the hypothesis that by switching to organic produce, there would be no exposure to pesticides,† he says. With a simple change from eating nonorganic products and gradually introducing organic foods into the diets, similar to th... ...issued by nations on GMO’s and any possible need for their use in mainstream food markets, due to lack of testing and the assurance of any negative side effects associated with consumption of these modified foods. Spears, J.F, Klaenhammer, T.R, and Petters, R.M. Genetic Engineering of Food, Feed, and Fiber: Understanding Genetic Engineering. North Carolina Cooperative Connection Service. N.d. Web. 5 Mar 2011. This article was chosen for the positive outlook towards genetic engineering of crops, which help create more crop yields, longer lasting crops and specific variants of a crop resistant to pests and diseases. Though beneficial to the Earth, the lasting complications of ingesting genetically modified foods are a highly contestable topic in America, leading to the holistic and organic food movements.

Juliet’s speech in Act 4, Scene 3 Essay

Juliet’s speech in Act 4, Scene 3, filled with much classic Shakesperean imagery, is a turning point in the play for Juliet in which she wrestles with the conflicts in her life and then ultimately comes to a decision. It encompasses all the major themes in the play and many ideas all come together for the first time in this passage. First of all, this soliloquy deals with fear, of what will happen if she takes the potion and of what will happen if she doesn’t. Secondly, it concerns time, specifically the recurring night and darkness motif. Thirdly, it discusses love and death, the two major contrasting themes. Lastly, it introduces or reintroduces other opposites, such as reality versus appearance, which was the major metaphor in Juliet’s earlier speech. If one had to summarize this speech in just a few words, one would say it was an inner monologue about fear, in which Juliet worries about all the possible problems that could befall her. When she says â€Å"I have a faint cold fear thrills through my veins, that almost freezes up the heat of life†, she is saying that she has a bad feeling something unfortunate is going to happen that may result in death. She even says, â€Å"God knows when we shall meet again† which shows that she isn’t sure what terrible consequences there may be from drinking the potion. Initially she worries â€Å"What if it do not work at all?† and that she’ll have to â€Å"be married then to-morrow morning† with Paris. Then, she becomes afraid that it’s a poison, which the friar â€Å"subtly hath minister’d to have me dead† so that he should not be punished for marrying her to Romeo. Next, she fears that she should awaken before Romeo arrives. Here, she imagines herself â€Å"stifled in the vault†, in other words that she dies suffocated because there is no â€Å"healthsome air†, or scared to death because of â€Å"the terror of the place†, and being â€Å"packed† amidst â€Å"the bones of all my buried ancestors†, including Tybalt. After that, she envisions the spirits she has heard stories about coming out to haunt her at the graveyard. Lastly, she worries she’s going to go crazy and, in her madness, kill herself. This is obviously foreshadowing, particularly in the lines â€Å"if I wake, shall I not be distraught†, since when she does wake, she finds Romeo’s dead body, and in the lines â€Å"dash out my desperate brains†, which represents that she is going to commit suicide. Clearly, fear is present throughout the entire speech until she gets carried away enough  to dare to drink the potion. Another recurring theme in this speech, which comes up again and again in the play, is night. The line â€Å"the horrible conceit of death and night† is very important as it ties together for the first time the two principal antitheses in the play, life and death and day and night. Here she is saying that if it is completely dark, she will be scared to death and therefore to lie there in the darkness of the vault is to be as good as dead. Before, darkness meant Romeo could be hidden by the night so he could go see Juliet and was therefore ironically associated with good things while light and the day brought them separation and troubles and was therefore associated with bad things. However, now the night represents for Juliet what it usually does for us, which is darkness, misery and death. Later, Shakespeare returns to the ironic implications of night as brighter times as it is during the night that Juliet is safe and things go according to plan, whereas the minute dawn breaks, confusion reigns again and the lovers take their lives. The night-related imagery is used here to paint a dark and gloomy picture of the tomb to make Juliet seem even more courageous and thus for the audience to sympathize with her. Love and death are two of the major themes throughout the play, which in a way contrast one another and in a way are dependent on one another. The entire speech is about Juliet questioning her love for Romeo and whether she is willing to sacrifice her life to remain true to her love. She contrasts what will happen if she doesn’t drink the potion and has to marry Paris, with the prospect of death if she does drink it. After listing all the possible disasters that could befall her as a result of drinking the liquor, she ends with â€Å"Romeo, Romeo, Romeo, here’s drink! I drink to thee!†. This tells us that to Juliet, marrying Paris is a fate worse than death and that she is willing to risk her life for Romeo. So, her love toward him is both a savior as that is what motivated her to drink the potion and escape her doom but it is also her ruin as their adoration for each other is what kills them both in the end. Another way to say this is that risking death will bring her love but death itself will take him away. Throughout this entire passage, there is this ominous threat of death, foreshadowing the outcome of  the play. Specifically, the phrases â€Å"God knows when we shall meet again†, â€Å"freezes up the heat of life†, â€Å"if I wake, shall I not be distraught† and â€Å"dash out my desperate brains† all hint at what will happen and tell us that Juliet had made up her mind and is willing to die for Romeo. This speech incorporates many opposites or antitheses that Shakespeare employs constantly in this drama. Some of these are in the concrete language such as the contrast at the beginning of this speech between hot and cold. The simile â€Å"I have a faint cold fear†¦that almost freezes up the heat of life† is very poetic and clever because life represents the warmth and passion between the two lovers, their â€Å"heat† and her fear is of death, which turns a body cold. Another example of opposites is when Juliet questions whether the potion is a poison or an antidote to her troubles. There are also metaphorical opposites, below the surface of the text, such as reality versus appearance. The main subject of this extract is the false death, which makes her seem dead but she is really alive. Later, the word â€Å"act† on line 19 also ties in to this symbol as it relates to theatricality and pretending to be someone or something that you are not. Clearly, opposites are very important in this passage because during the entire speech, Juliet is weighing her possibilities and asking herself what will happen if she does drink it and what will happen if she doesn’t. Inside, she is comparing what her life will be like with Paris and what her life will be like with Romeo. This speech is, I believe, an extremely important one in the play. It is truly the moment where what has happened and what will happen come together in Juliet’s decision that she would sacrifice herself out of love for Romeo. Parallel to that coming together in the plot is an assemblage of many images that have been used previously. It is also important because it is in my opinion the moment that Juliet enters into adulthood. In the lines â€Å"I needs must act alone†, Juliet is finally ready to leave the comfort of being a child and make her own choices in life. Her fears are natural; everyone fears change, the unfamiliar, and so, part of Juliet’s worries in this speech are those of having to move on and make her own way for herself in a world full of hardships and obstacles. In the end, she takes comfort in  Romeo, whom she expects to be there when she awakens, and drinks to him. Throughout the speech, beautiful imagery is used and the five senses are incorpo rated to make the scene come to life in order for the audience to sympathize with the lovers before their tragic deaths.

iacocca essays

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Parietal Lobes Function and Brain Anatomy

Parietal Lobes Function and Brain Anatomy The parietal lobes are one of the four main lobes or regions of the cerebral cortex. The parietal lobes are positioned behind the frontal lobes and above the temporal lobes. These lobes are important to the function and processing of sensory information, understanding spatial orientation and body awareness. Location Directionally, the parietal lobes are superior to the occipital lobes and posterior to the central sulcus and frontal lobes. The central sulcus is the large deep groove or indentation that separates the parietal and frontal lobes. Function The parietal lobes are involved in a number of important functions in the body. One of the main functions is to receive and process sensory information from all over the body. The somatosensory cortex is found within the parietal lobes and is essential for processing touch sensations. For instance, the somatosensory cortex helps us to identify the location of a touch sensation and to discriminate between sensations such as temperature and pain. Neurons in the parietal lobes receive touch, visual and other sensory information from a part of the brain called the thalamus. The thalamus relays nerve signals and sensory information between the peripheral nervous system and the cerebral cortex. The parietal lobes process the information and help us to identify objects by touch. The parietal lobes work in concert with other areas of the brain,  such as the motor cortex and visual cortex, to perform certain tasks. Opening a door, combing your hair, and placing your lips and tongue in the proper position to speak all involve the parietal lobes. These lobes are also important for understanding spatial orientation and for proper navigation. Being able to identify the position, location and movement of the body and its parts is an important function of the parietal lobes. Parietal lobe functions include: CognitionInformation ProcessingTouch Sensation (Pain, Temperature, etc.)Understanding Spatial OrientationMovement CoordinationSpeechVisual PerceptionReading and WritingMathematical Computation Damage Damage or injury to the parietal lobe can cause a number of difficulties. Some of the difficulties as it relates to language include the inability to recall the correct names of everyday items, inability to write or spell, impaired reading, and the inability to position the lips or tongue properly in order to speak. Other problems that may result from damage to the parietal lobes include difficulty in performing goal-directed tasks, difficulty in drawing and performing math calculations, difficulty in identifying objects by touch or distinguishing between different types of touch, inability to distinguish left from right, lack of hand-eye coordination, difficulty in understanding direction, lack of body awareness, difficulty in making exact movements, inability to perform complex tasks in the proper order, difficulty in localizing touch and deficits in attention.​ Certain types of problems are associated with damage caused to either the left or right hemispheres of the cerebral cortex. Damage to the left parietal lobe typically results in difficulties in understanding language and writing. Damage to the right parietal lobe results in difficulties with understanding spatial orientation and navigation. Cerebral Cortex Lobes The cerebral cortex is the thin layer of tissue that covers the cerebrum. The cerebrum is the largest component of the brain and is divided into two hemispheres with each hemisphere being divided into four lobes. Each brain lobe has a specific function. Functions of the cerebral cortex lobes involve everything from interpreting and processing sensory information to decision-making and problem-solving capabilities. In addition to the parietal lobes, the lobes of the brain consist of the frontal lobes, temporal lobes, and occipital lobes. The frontal lobes are involved in reasoning and the expression of personality. The temporal lobes assist in organizing sensory input and memory formation. The occipital lobes are involved in visual processing.

For the US Gov. Exam Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1750 words

For the US Gov. Exam - Essay Example g laws, can neither of them consist with the ends of society and government, which men would not quit the freedom of the state of nature for, and tie themselves up under, were it not to preserve their lives, liberties and fortunes; and by stated rules of right and property to secure their peace and quiet.† Thomas Paine (1997, 6), another figure whose influence on early American thinkers cannot be understated, warned in his pamphlet Common Sense â€Å"the king is not to be trusted without being looked after, or in other words, a thirst for absolute power is the natural disease of the monarchy.† With anti-monarchist influences like Locke and Paine, it’s not wonders that the architects of the American constitution constructed a political system that significantly limited the powers of the executive branch and instituted a number of difficult-to-navigate checks and balances. Much debate surrounded the exact role of the President during the early constitutional debates that followed the American Revolution. However, it was universally agreed upon that a strong separation of powers was needed. Much of the debate surrounded exactly how powerful, or how weak, the executive branch, headed by the President, was to be. The founders of the American constitution agreed (MacDonald, 1994, 126) â€Å"that safety and ordered liberty cannot exist without competent government and that government without an executive authority is no government at all.† Ultimately, the founders agreed on a concept that would create a natural and permanent tension between the President, the chief executive, and the members of Congress who were responsible for the legislation of the nation’s laws. They did this be ensuring that the new constitution contained (Thach, 1969, 70)â€Å"no constitutional legal barrier which Congress could not at pleasure cross.† This intuit ional strength that the founders granted Congress would significantly diminish the powers of the American executive, especially when

Thesis comments Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Thesis comments - Essay Example Instead Coase focused on factors within the organization which impacted economic activity. Coasian theory later became the foundation for what is today called internalization theory, one of the most significant theories to emerge in the study of multinational enterprises (Rugman & Verbecke, 2008). This theory suggests that foreign production and sales of a multinational business take place in response to imperfections in the goods and services markets. Buckley and Casson (1976) established the modern conception of this theory by suggesting three premises: 1) firms maximize profit in a world of imperfect markets, 2) the imperfect nature of the markets for intermediate products motivates firms to bypass them by creating internal markets, and 3) internalization of markets across national boundaries generates multinational enterprises. Thus, the multinational organization is seen as a device for raising efficiency by replacing external markets with an internal market within the company . Caves (2007) suggests that the establishment of a subsidiary by a multinational enterprise amounts to the entry into one national market based on needs created by another market. One type of entry is horizontal expansion whereby a subsidiary produces the same product (or product line) as the parent company. Another is vertical expansion or integration across national borders either backwards in order to obtain raw materials or other intermediate products needed by its main operations, or forwards to provide a distribution channel for its exports. Consequently there are three types of organizations potentially relevant to multinational enterprises. The first is a horizontally integrated firm, meaning a firm which produces essentially the same product line for each of the geographic markets where it has a presence. The second is a vertically integrated firm, meaning a firm that produces outputs in some of its plants which serve as inputs to others of its plants. The third is a diver sified company, whose plant outputs are neither horizontally nor vertically related to one another (Caves, 2007). Hymer’s (1976) theory of international operations highlighted two major motivators of international operations, namely the exploitation of oligopolistic advantages and the removal of conflict between firms to strengthen market power by means of collusion. He states, It frequently happens that enterprises in different countries compete with each other because they sell in the same market or because some of the firms sell to other firms. If the markets are imperfect, that is, if there is horizontal or bilateral monopoly or oligopoly, some form of collusion will be profitable. One form of collusion is to have the various enterprises owned and controlled by one firm. This is one motivation for firms to control enterprises in foreign countries. (Hymer, 1976, p. 25). Hymer emphasizes that direct foreign investment is not motivated by interest rates but rather by potenti al profits which can be derived by controlling a foreign enterprise. Vernon’s product cycle model (1966) is an important macroeconomic approach to understanding international business. This theory describes the product cycle as consisting of three primary phases: innovation, growth, and maturation. During the last, maturation stage of the product, the